Archives in Transit: Todosomos and the Venezuelan Migration Crisis

Following the death of former president Hugo Chávez in 2013, a series of political, socioeconomic, and humanitarian crises have rocked Venezuela, resulting in the largest displacement crisis in the world. As of 2023, over 7.7 million migrants and refugees have attempted to leave the country, often risking their lives in the process (CSIS 2023; CRS 2019). How did this crisis begin? What are the reasons behind this outmigration, and what aspects of Venezuela's history can bring greater perspective to this crisis? This section of the guide provides a brief overview of Venezuela's political history, from the 19th century to the present. 

Venezuela is located in northern South America, sharing borders with Brazil, Colombia, Guyana, the Caribbean Sea, and the North Atlantic Ocean. The country has a population of over 31 million, and is considered one of the most urbanized countries in the Global South (BBC; CIA 2025). After gaining independence from Spain in 1811, the territory of Venezuela formed part of the first federal Republic of Colombia (Gran Colombia) until becoming a sovereign territory in 1830 following the Venezuelan War of Independence (Tarver 2018; Britannica 2025). 

Throughout the 19th century, Venezuela (along with many newly independent nations of the Americas) suffered political instability under competing caudillos (strongmen) and rapidly changing leadership. This turmoil ultimately resulted in the Federal War, a civil war between the Liberal and Conservative parties, which ended in the establishment of the modern States of Venezuela (Britannica 2025). 

An important turning point for Venezuela's economy and international relationships was the discovery of the country's major petroleum deposits in the early 20th century. The country's economy rapidly shifted from a reliance on agriculture to petroleum, resulting in an oil boom that lasted until the 1980s. Venezuela's oil industry was nationalized in 1976 under then-president Carlos Andrés Pérez, alongside the creation of the country's state-owned petroleum company Petróleos de Venezuela S.A. (PDVSA), which replaced existing foreign partners with Venezuelan-owned industries.

The focus on oil over decades led to other essential economic and social sectors being neglected, such as education, public health, and infrastructure. Economic instability in the country's oil sector in the 1980s set the stage for political crisis in the 1990s. 

In the 1980s, the end of the oil boom had created socioeconomic unrest in Venezuela. Under President Jaime Luscinchi of the Democratic Action Party and his successor Carlos Andrés Peréz, the administration adopted austerity measures in an attempt to slow capital and address foreign debts. The measures ultimately proved ineffective; public unrest in response to ongoing economic issues resulted in riots throughout Venezuela. Hundreds of participants were killed by the military during these protests (Joquera 2003). 

In 1992, a group of army officers led by Hugo Chávez Frías attempted a coup against Pérez, but failed; Pérez remained in office until confronted with charges of misappropriating funds in 1993 (Council of Foreign Relations 2013). Social Christian party candidate and former president Rafael Caldera took office again in 1994, implementing populist economic reforms. Caldera released Hugo Chávez from prison during his term, making Chávez eligible to run for political office. He was elected as president in 1998 (BBC 2002). 

When Chávez came to power, more than half of Venezuela's population lived below the poverty line. Additionally, Venezuela suffered some of the worst storms and flooding events in its history in 1999, creating extensive structural damage throughout the country. Chávez promised to implement leftist policy and reforms, including addressing political corruption and reinstating a democratic system while implementing social reforms. This included Bolivarian Missions, social programs funded by oil revenue which sought to address essential rights such as education, food and water, housing, healthcare, Indigenous and territorial rights, and more among Venezuela's most disadvantaged communities (López Maya 2004; Council on Foreign Relations 2013). 

Despite a 2-day exit from office as the result of a 2002 coup, Chávez remained president for 13 years (BBC 2002). Following his reelection in 2006, he began a nationalization program which included the oil sector, telecommunications, and other major industries. He also attempted to pass several controversial constitutional amendments, such as a measure which would have allowed him to be reelected as president indefinitely. While his social programs and support for the working class have been praised, many scholars and economists argue the Chávez government's use of petroleum sale funds contributed to the country's rising inflation rate which continues to impact Venezuela today, and that much of his policies siphoned the country's wealth into the hands of political elites while allowing poverty rates to rise. Throughout his 13 years as president, over 2 million Venezuelans fled the country. Chávez died of cancer in 2013, leaving behind a complicated legacy (Council on Foreign Relations 2013).

Currently, Venezuela is in the midst of a "multi-year political crisis" stemming from fraudulent elections and multiple claimants to the presidency, including Nicolás Maduro (United Socialist Party of Venezuela) and Juan Guaidó. Maduro was Chavéz's vice president. Following Chávez's death in 2013, a special election was held to determine a president to serve the rest of his 6-year term. Maduro won against opposition candidate Henrique Capriles; while the results were contested, a subsequent audit did not turn up any fraudulent votes (UC San Diego 2025; Oxford Bibliographies 2019). 

Maduro inherited many of the economic issues of the Chávez administration, yet continued with much of the same policy. Long-term use of Venezuela's oil income to fund social programs and ongoing overspending resulted in high inflation rates and a worsening humanitarian crisis. By 2014, the country was in an economic recession. Increasing poverty rates, severe food shortages, lacking medical resources, sanitation issues, and other infrastructure problems spurred massive outmigration from Venezuela, an issue which continues today (CIA World Factbook 2025). 

Public outcry and large scale demonstrations against the Maduro administration began in 2014 and are often met with state repression and violence. Maduro's increasingly repressive policies have led his administration to be considered a dictatorship within the international community. Maduro created a constitutional crisis in 2017 when he disavowed the National Assembly, instead forming a constituent assembly (ANC) of specially chosen members loyal to Maduro. Many international organizations and other nations refused to recognize the new assembly, viewing it as an attempt by Maduro to remain in power indefinitely (Padget 2017; U.S. Embassy 2017). 

Maduro called for an early presidential election in 2018 and declared himself the victor, but the result was viewed as fraudulent. In early 2019, a new National Assembly was sworn in which declared the 2018 election results invalid; assembly president Juan Guaidó was declared acting president of Venezuela. After the United States and other international powers recognized Guaidó's presidency, Maduro attempted to cut all diplomatic ties with the U.S. and close borders, blocking humanitarian aid from entering the country. This worsened the existing humanitarian crisis, and outmigration from Venezuela continued to rise. Nearly 8 million people have fled Venezuela since 2014, marking it as the largest refugee crisis in the history of the Americas (CSIS 2023).

Venezuela's sociopolitical unrest heightened during its 2024 presidential elections. Maduro ran for a third term against opposition candidate Edmundo González Urrutia (Democratic Unitary Platform). While all evidence pointed to González as the victor, Maduro was announced as the election winner. The announced results spurred massive protests throughout the country, met with violent state response; protesters were imprisoned as Maduro implemented "Operation Tun Tun" (Operation Knock Knock) to crack down on dissenters and instill fear in his political opponents and critics (Human Rights Watch 2024).

*Photo: (Protests against Maduro following the 2024 election results; Photo by Leonardo Fernández Viloria, Reuters)

According to recent United Nations reports, roughly five thousand people leave Venezuela each day. Central factors causing ongoing outmigration from Venezuela include organized crime and violence, hyperinflation, and basic resource shortages. Many refugees do not have necessary documentation to legally reside in the countries they migrate to, and lack of status makes it particularly difficult for migrants to receive humanitarian assistance or other forms of aid. It also increases the risk of human trafficking, deportation, and labor abuses. Many refugees also face discrimination in other countries (Kleszczyńska 2020; United Nations 2024). 

A majority of refugees migrate to countries throughout the Americas, with Colombia, Peru, Chile, Ecuador, Argentina and Brazil as the most common destinations (Kleszczyńska 2020). The journey to leave Venezuela to neighboring countries is incredibly dangerous. Many refugees must cross through the Darién Gap, a jungle region between Panama and Colombia (CSIS 2023). 

While some of these destination countries throughout Latin America have created new programs and policy to regularize refugee status and support access to national job markets, public health, and education, Latin America as a whole is still recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic, making it difficult for national administrations and organizations to offer support (CSIS 2023).

Internationally, humanitarian organizations and other countries have attempted to address Venezuela's refugee crisis through efforts such as United Nations funding support for essential resources, and support for political negotiation from other international powers. However, existing financial and social assistance programs do not have the capacity to address current humanitarian needs; addressing the refugee crisis as a whole requires major structural change in Venezuela's political system (Kleszczyńska 2020; CSIS 2023). 

Migration Policy Information by Country (AS/COA 2024)

Since the early 2000's, the U.S. has imposed a number of sanctions on Venezuela that have affected the ongoing sociopolitical crises and economic status of the country. Over a decade of sanctions has had a lasting impact for Venezuelan citizens, particularly related to shortages of food and medical supplies resulting from frozen international accounts. Much of Venezuela's social programs rely on funding from the oil sector to function; years of sanctions have contributed little to improved social and democratic conditions, and have worsened rather than improved daily life for Venezuelan citizens. The following list presents an overview of U.S. sanctions against Venezuela since 2008:

2008: Executive Order (EO) 13224

EO 13224 sought to reduce "terrorist" funding in Venezuela through sanctions. Additionally, the U.S. Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) sanctioned three Venezuelan government officials for their alleged support of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) in illegal drug trade activity.

2011: Additional Sanctions under EO 13224

Four allies of Hugo Chávez faced U.S. sanctions for alleged collaboration with FARC.

2014: Venezuela Defense of Human Rights and Civil Society Act 

Under the second Obama administration, the U.S. imposed sanctions on Venezuelans suspected to be involved with human rights violations during the 2014 protests. 

2015-2016: Obama Administration, the Civil Society Act & Extension

Venezuela is declared a "threat to US national security." Imposing sanctions from the Civil Society Act involves freezing assets among Venezuelan government officials and imposing visa sanctions (EO 13692). Individuals targeted include the Bolivarian Police and National Guard, security forces, and intelligence services. The act is extended in 2016.

2017: Economic Sanctions under Trump administration

Trump imposes the first economic sanctions against Venezuela, including an embargo against the purchase of petroleum from PDVSA, representing a major blow to Venezuela's economy. The U.S. Department of Treasury imposes sanctions on operations and transactions between U.S. entities and Venezuela. EO 13808 also placed sanctions against 8 Venezuelan government officials. Harsh economic sanctions and over-compliance among U.S. banks contributed to Venezuela defaulting on its debts. 

2018: Continued Economic Sanctions

The Trump administration imposes sanctions on four Venezuelan military officers. Prior to Venezuela's 2018 presidential elections, more sanctions against government officials and several Venezuelan companies are issued (EO 13835; EO 13827; EO 13850), and the US seizes property belonging to Maduro's administration.

2019: Sanctions on Oil Exports

In the midst of sociopolitical unrest following the 2018 elections in Venezuela, the U.S. halted oil exports, affecting an already weakened PDVSA. Additional sanctions are implemented against Venezuelan state governors for alleged attempts to block US humanitarian aid to the country (EO 13857; EO 13884). Due to restrictions on international market access, the Venezuelan government attempted to sell oil through cryptocurrency markets, which resulted in several arrests of government officials on charges of embezzled funds. 

2020: Sanctions over Disputed Election Results

Following Venezuela's 2020 presidential election in which two claims to the presidency were made, the U.S. government implemented further sanctions against Venezuelan officials (particularly members and allies of the Maduro administration) accused of involvement with election fraud. 

2022-2024: Eased Restrictions & the Barbados Agreement

When Russia invaded Ukraine in 2022, the US began to ease its sanctions on Venezuela in the midst of global energy shortages due to the pause of oil imports from Russia. Under the Biden administration, the US agreed to lift some sanctions on oil from Venezuela under the condition that Venezuela's government honor the Barbados Agreement. However, in mid-2024, formerly lifted sanctions were reinstated after Maduro failed to allow opposition candidates to enter the presidential race. After the 2024 presidential election in Venezuela, the US government imposed further sanctions on individuals but did not add sanctions in the oil sector.